Interpersonal Computing and Technology: An Electronic Journal for the 21st Century - ISSN: 1064-4326
April 1997 - Volume 5, Number 1-2, pp. 19-36
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Interpersonal Computing and Technology: An Electronic Journal for the 21st Century - ISSN: 1064-4326 April 1997 - Volume 5, Number 1-2, pp. 19-36 | |
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COGNITIVE ISSUES IN THE DESIGN AND DEPLOYMENT OF INTERACTIVE HYPERMEDIA: IMPLICATIONS FOR AUTHORING WWW SITES Samuel Ebersole, MA University of Southern Colorado
Media cognition, the study of the mental processes engaged by interaction with the media, is a topic of great interest to psychologists, sociologists, educators, communication theorists, and media practitioners. Much research has been conducted in the areas of perception, sensory stimulation, memory and recall, and media effects. Researchers have studied how a reader engages the pages of a newspaper or magazine (e.g., Garcia & Stark 1991; Utt & Pasternack 1989), and the mental processes and effects of viewing film and television programs (e.g., Bandura, 1994; Graber, 1990; Grimes, 1990; Reeves & Anderson, 1991). However, because of the relatively short history of computer based interactive multimedia, research into the cognitive processes engaged by these new interactive, non-linear, multi-sensory, digital media is in short supply [1]. The rapid growth of interactive multimedia is creating new markets and opportunities for media professionals. Delivered over local area networks (LANs), the Internet, or on optical disk, and displayed on a PC monitor, interactive media take on many forms and serve a variety of purposes. Video games, edutainment, computer-based training (CBT), advertising and promotions are just some of the applications for this new medium. With global annual sales exceeding $15 billion, multimedia CD-ROMs and videogames generate revenues that far surpass those generated by the feature film industry (Miles, 1996). Political and popular support for the Information Superhighway and the convergence of the + Page 20 + telecommunications, television, publishing, and entertainment industries is reflected in the meteoric growth of the Internet. All of these point to new and growing markets for interactive multimedia. Designing effective interactive media can be a daunting proposition. In addition to the collection and organization of useful content the interactive multimedia designer must create a user interface that facilitates access to the content. This interface should be crafted with careful attention to the mental processes that the user is likely to employ. Issues surrounding the attention, comprehension, and memory of information seekers using interactive multimedia are complex and compelling. Interactive media designers would do well to consider the literature of cognitive psychology, human factors, psycholinguistics, semiotics and communication theory.[2]. System design should result in an interface that is easy to learn, effective, and pleasant to use (Molich & Nielsen, 1990, p. 338). Recker (1995) argued that "hypermedia systems" and the "indices and structure of the system should be based on cognitive aspects of the users of that information." [2] According to Recker, how the user interacts with the media environment and the user interface should be based on cognitive theory. Preece (1993) argued that human-computer interaction must take into account psychological limitations such as; memory load, perception, and attention (p. 139). This paper will attempt to define interactive media and will consider the design of interactive hypermedia from the perspective of the cognitive processes engaged by the authors and users of the system's architecture and content. Special emphasis will be given to the World-Wide Web (WWW) as an example of interactive hypermedia and examples will be presented with references to Netscape Navigator, a popular WWW browser. Definitions The terms hypertext, hypermedia, and interactive multimedia are frequently used interchangeably. Regardless of the term, the concept is one that is best understood as the merging of formerly separate media in a manner that allows associations or links between the various elements. Text, graphic images, audio, video, and animation-all in digital form-make up the form and functional elements of this new medium. The inevitable digitization of media and the rapid growth of computer networks allows storage and retrieval of digital material, local or remote, in a way that presents the material to the user in response to the users choices. This interactivity, made possible by random access afforded by disc-based storage and by the use of a computer as the common interface, is what sets hypermedia apart from former attempts to combine and integrate various media. + Page 21 + Interactivity Interactivity implies a dialogue between two parties. According to Steuer (1992), "interactivity is the extent to which users can participate in modifying the form and content of a mediated environment in real time" (p.84). Interactivity, in the context of interactive multimedia, is the functionality afforded by a system that responds to the user. Choices made by the user determine the "system's" response to the input and the next bit of information presented for consideration. Interactive multimedia has received renewed attention and exposure through the rising popularity of the Internet, and more specifically, the World-Wide Web (WWW). The WWW, with an estimated 50 million home pages, is the largest hypertext document of all - incorporating text, graphics, audio, video, and animation, tying all of these elements together with dynamic linking. While still very much an evolving medium, the explosive growth of WWW sites for educational, commercial and personal interests has breathed new life into the study and application of interactive media.[3] Hypertext Hypertext is a term first coined by Theodor Nelson, a self- described "rogue philosopher and film-maker," [4] in 1965. Hypertext documents are nonsequential, e.g., the reader can explore the content in whatever order desired. Units of information, or "nodes," are connected by "links." Nodes hold "chunks" of content and may be defined by fixed frames or sections of content within a scrolling window. Links provide context for the content. Links may be part of the content, e.g., a word may also be a link to take the user to a related node, or may be a separate icon or menu item. A linked portion of text may be indicated by its style, color, or by the fact that the cursor changes as it passes over the link. This node and link structure allows authors and readers to create associations between related units of information that make sense to them.[5] The term hypermedia is simply an expansion of the concept of hypertext to include other forms of digital information, e.g., graphic images, audio, video, and animation. The linking of associated ideas in hypertext and hypermedia is analogous to the way that the human brain functions for memory and recall. If the computer is, in McLuhanesque terminology, an extension of the human brain, hypertext and hypermedia describe the process by which ideas are categorized and linked by + Page 22 + associative indexing. A simplified description of human memory uses familiar terms to describe the linking association of new sensory stimuli, or "chunks" of information, with formerly processed information. Bush (1945) may have originated this line of reasoning when he wrote:
The human mind...operates by association. With one item in its grasp, it snaps instantly to the next that is suggested by the association of thoughts, in accordance with some intricate web of trails carried by the cells of the brain.
The Interface If an interface is defined as where two different worlds meet, it would appear that the more dissimilar the two worlds the greater the need for a well designed interface. The study of user interface is known by a variety of terms; e.g., human-computer interaction (HCI), human factors, and ergonomics. Advanced graphical user interfaces (GUIs) such as Windows and the Macintosh OS have evolved over years of research and testing.[6] Interactive media are different from other, more familiar media in the degree of contact between the user of the medium and the mechanism that delivers that content. Newspaper readers hold a newspaper, turn pages, and fold in under their arms. Television viewers flip between channels with a remote control and occasionally adjust the volume. In contrast, users of computer- based interactive media are constantly clicking with a mouse or keyboard, selecting icons, opening windows, and otherwise interacting with the hardware and software interface. Computer- based delivery technology requires a more active consumer than does traditional media. Frequently this required activity is detrimental to the process, especially for users with little experience. For many users the interface employed by computer-based interactive media is confusing and opaque. Interface tools used for interactive media include the keyboard, mouse, touch screen, and joystick. For more advanced applications, such as virtual reality, users put on a data glove, eye-tracking goggles or helmet and even a full-body suit. The Holy Grail of interactive multimedia interface design is to achieve a level of transparency that approaches that of more traditional media. Human-computer interaction is an issue that will continue to require considerable resources and attention if interactive media are to thrive. + Page 23 + Cognitive Issues As mentioned earlier, effective design of interactive multimedia will take into account the cognitive experience of the end user. Key issues to be considered include local and global coherence and cognitive overhead. Turing et. al. (1995) proposed that the relationship between cognition and hypermedia first consider two different approaches to current hypermedia usage. The first is the unstructured navigation through "browsable databases," while the second employs the guided experience of progressing through "electronic documents" (p. 57). According to Turing et. al., the former provides greater access to disparate information while the latter provide greater opportunity for structured learning. It is this second approach to which interactive media authors apply theories of coherence and cognitive overhead as they relate to user comprehension. By increasing coherence, e.g. "facilitating the construction of semantic relations between information units," and minimizing cognitive overhead, e.g., "freeing processing capacities that otherwise would have been bound by orientation, navigation, and user-interface adjustment," interactive multimedia authors can increase the effectiveness of their product (p. 61). Wright (1993) suggested that the reader's consideration of "cognitive cost" might play a role in determining under what conditions to follow a hypertext link (p. 140). Increasing local coherence of text-based information is achieved by using established rules of grammar and compositions, and by limiting the appearance of fragmentation (p. 58). The nature of interactive hypermedia is one of fragments of interrelated data. However, to increase local coherence one needs to minimize the appearance of fragmentation. In a hypertext document, one way to achieve this is to provide clues as to where a link will take the user. An unidentified link in the middle of a node creates a situation where the reader is given the choice of ignoring the link or blindly following the link and in doing so surrendering control to the document's author. As an alternative, some authors propose making links only at the end of text blocks, or in sidebars, thus limiting the readers choices before they have fully engaged the present material. In a hypertext document on a network, e.g., a WWW page, an author may be tempted to link to the vast array of related texts located at far-flung web sites. While these may be very useful, caution should be exercised to prevent fragmentation which disorientates or confuses the reader. The lack of control over linked destinations makes WWW-based documents especially precarious. + Page 24 + It is best to identify links that will take the user "off-site" to differentiate them from internal links that simply take the user to another place in the current document or site. In Media Determinism in Cyberspace, a hypertext paper written by the author, internal links are identified by the standard blue text with underline.[7] Links that take the user to off-site pages present the entire URL in blue, underlined text. This clues the reader to the fact that linked site is external to the current server and once s/he takes this link the easiest way to return is to use the BACK button. In such an uncontrolled environment there is no guarantee that the linked site will provide an easy way back. To confuse the situation even more, the new site may use an entirely unfamiliar metaphor or have a look and feel that is comprehensible only to its author. In a worst-case scenario the link may become broken and dysfunctional. If the link works and the reader finds a functional interface, a final danger is that the reader may wander off on a trail of links never to find his way back to the remaining portion of your site. In order to increase global coherence, Turing et. al. (1995) suggested that the author provide a comprehensive overview of the document components and their relations in terms of graphical maps or browsers" (p. 59). Each of the issues discussed to this point involve measures taken to minimize the negative effects of cognitive overhead. Cognitive overhead as defined by Conklin (1987) is, "the additional mental overhead required to create, name and keep track of links" (p. 40). Nielsen (1990) describes "overhead" and "cognitive load" as they apply to the user's experience in terms of the "look and feel" of the interface (p. 4). The experience, according to Nielsen, should be one of effortless navigation through the material without concern for "what the computer will do or how to get it to do what they want" (p. 4). According to Turing et. al. (1995) cognitive overhead in hyperdocuments often results when users are concerned about, "orientation, navigation, and user- interface adjustment" (p. 59). Dealing with what may be an unfamiliar user interface while trying to remember one's "position" within the document can put a load on the cognitive process, thus making less processing power available for comprehension and learning. In summary, minimizing the distractions of disorientation and unfamiliarity will enhance comprehension. + Page 25 + Potential Concerns for Multi-modal Presentation The fact that multimedia employs various media raises yet another topic for inquiry. Do different media use different symbol systems to present information to the user? Do text, a photograph, sound, and video animation each have a unique symbol system that presents its information in a unique way? And if so, do the brain's sensory stores and short-term memory process these symbol systems without confounding complications? Salomon (1979) argued that the differences between various media is evident and significant in two ways. First, they differ "with respect to the amount of mental translation from external symbol system to internal mode that they require." Secondly, they differ "with respect to the kinds of mental skills that they invoke in the process of knowledge extraction" (p. 215). Salomon perceived these differences to be of great importance with regard to their impact on the use of media for educational purposes. The assumption is that the increase in mental resources required for recoding results in a decrease in comprehension. Wright (1993) suggested that a cognitive "bottleneck" or overload may be the result of the multi-modal processing inherent in multimedia presentation systems. Two of the many important elements to consider when designing an interactive system which will increase coherence and minimize cognitive overhead are consistency and orientation cues. The remainder of this paper will consider these and related issues, as well as the testing procedures used to insure their proper implementation. Consistency Consistency is achieved when the same actions result in the same effect, regardless of other variables that may have changed. A consistent interface is achieved by first selecting, and then following, an applicable metaphor. The metaphor is the overarching theme that captures the form and function of the system's architecture.[8] Metaphors based on ordinary and familiar concepts, e.g., a desktop, book, travel, and stack of cards, have all been used to bring real-world concepts and familiarities to what otherwise might be a confusing new system. According to Lynch (1994), a successful metaphor limits the number and complexity of rules that the user must learn "because the 'rules' governing the user's interactions ought to be self-evident in the metaphor" (p. 30). Kahn (1995) and others have shown that thoughtful graphic design can create global structure within a single web site. + Page 26 + A quick tour of the WWW will quickly demonstrate the diversity of metaphors used by site authors. The one thread of consistency that runs throughout the web is near universal compliance with most of the functions of the Hyper Text Markup Language (HTML) standard that is used to create WWW pages and the Hyper Text Transfer Protocol (HTTP) used for communication. In addition, the robust market penetration of graphical user interfaces or browsers-first NSCA's Mosaic and then Netscape's Navigator-has managed to bring an additional level of consistency to the web. However, introduction of numerous extensions, e.g., frames and tables, as well as plug-in applications, e.g., RealAudio(tm), Java(tm), and ShockWave(tm) threaten to reduce consistency for the sake of increased performance. Orientation One of the concepts repeatedly mentioned in the literature as a means to reduce cognitive overhead is the use of cues to aid the user's navigation through the information "space" of the hyperdocument. The metaphor of space is common to the world of computer-mediated communication. Since the invention of the telegraph, electronic technology has allowed us to demolish the barriers of time and space. We have come to accept the term "cyberspace" as defining a "place" where information resides in a network of linked computers. Navigating or "surfing" the web of information implies traveling through nodes of information, linking from one to another across the vast sea of data. As hypermedia documents increasingly reside on the network, cyberspace becomes increasingly appropriate to describe the place where the information resides. With this metaphor firmly entrenched, navigation of hyperdocuments requires that the user knows her position at any given time. To facilitate this, interactive multimedia designers have created several techniques to promote the formation of cognitive maps which aid orientation.[9] Shum (1990) applied spatial cognition theories to the design of hypertext documents. According to Shum users of hypertext systems are interested in both the locations and attributes of phenomena (p. 136). Dillon, McKnight and Richardson (1993) explored the issue of navigation by conceptualizing it using four categories: "schemata, landmarks, routes and surveys" (p. 172). Techniques used to facilitate navigation include; guided tours, maps, trails, backtrack functions, bookmarks, overview diagrams, queries, and fisheye views (Nielsen, 1990, chapter 8). An example of the backtrack and bookmarks approaches are familiar to those + Page 27 + who use Netscape Navigator to browse the World-Wide Web. The BACK button takes the user back to the previous "page" while the "bookmarks" feature allows the user to store a page's URL (uniform resource locator) in memory for later retrieval and access. In this case the orientation feature is part of the user interface (Netscape Navigator) and not part of the hypertext document. However it should be noted that many of the most friendly web sites include BACK, PREVIOUS, UP and HOME navigation buttons as part of their programming to facilitate the same goal. Another technique that can be used to provide orientation for the user is color. A case in point can again be made using the Netscape Navigator interface. Netscape's default configuration displays linked text as blue with an underline. Once the user has made a connection to that link, the text changes to purple, thus serving as a visual clue that that link has already been followed. Netscape allows the user to define a duration after which the link will return to the normal blue color thus allowing the user to customize the duration of the program's memory. In essence this allows the user to acknowledge the reality that it has been so long since the last visit that s/he probably does not remember the content of that page, so the computer might as well indicate that the link has not been followed. According to Turing et. al. (1995) orientation cues should: 1) "identify their current position with respect to the overall structure," 2) "reconstruct the way that led to this position," and, 3) "distinguish among different options for moving on from this position" (p. 59). Rivlin et. al. (1994) proposed a collection of structural tools to facilitate orientation within hypertext documents. Using algebraic formulas for "hierarchization and cluster identification," the authors attempted to identify groupings of links around "landmark" links, thus revealing the global structure of the document (p. 95). Users not only want to know where they are going, but whether it will be worth the journey. The "cognitive distance" is defined by the cost to the user. How long will it take, how many links, and how much cognitive energy will be expended in the process of getting to the destination? For users of the WWW, the cost of going the distance may be determined by the speed of their connection to the network. The person connected by a 9600 baud modem may make different choices of where to go than the one with an Ethernet connection. Web sites with heavy graphical content require greater bandwidth or more time to download, thus potentially limiting their visitors to those with faster connections or those willing to pay the high cognitive price. + Page 28 + Response Time Another related issue of concern to designers of hypermedia architectures is the response time as measured by the delay between user input and system response. When this is under the control of the system designer, e.g., a closed system in which the hardware, software, and content resides locally, an optimal response time is one that is perceived to be instantaneous, but one that is actually slow enough to provide a clue to the fact that the frame has changed. According to Nielsen (1990) an optimal duration is about a half second. Research conducted with shorter durations indicated that users were unaware that the screen had changed when speeds as short as .05 seconds were used (p. 87). Of course, if the system relies on a network connection or if the content of the new screen is graphically intensive, retrieval and rendering time may delay the display of the next screen. The more complex the content, the lower the bandwidth of the network, and the slower the processor speed, the greater the delay will be. In such cases it is important that the interface presents the user with an indicator that it has sensed the users action and is proceeding to respond. This may be an audible "click" or momentary change in the button or link that was "clicked on." When the delay is more than a few seconds, an indication of progress and estimated time for completion of the process is important. The too familiar hourglass (Windows(tm)) or watch (Macintosh(tm)) icons serve an important function providing feedback that something is happening and reassuring the user that the system has not locked up. A better solution, for delays longer than ten seconds, is to provide a "percent-done" indicator or "time-remaining" countdown clock (Nielsen, 1993, p. 136). Netscape Navigator provides such response time feedback in various ways. When displaying complex graphics Netscape allows for interlaced GIF files to quickly display low resolution images which are progressively upgraded to full resolution over time. Text blocks load before graphics allowing the user to begin reading even before the entire page is loaded. And when transferring files via FTP, Netscape presents a display containing both percent-done and time-remaining information. + Page 29 + Testing Interactive Media Interactive multimedia design based on theory can and should be tested using empirical methodology to ascertain real-world effectiveness. Because authors and users often have different perspectives when it comes to the evaluation of interactive media systems, a method to test and refine the design of the system is essential. Published reports have studied various issues relating to the effectiveness of the design of the system and presentation, e.g.; whether users detect design flaws in the human-computer interface (Molich & Nielsen, 1990), the impact of semantic structuring on the user (Jonassen, 1993), and, how design impacts evaluation criteria; e.g., richness, ease, consistency, self- evidence, predictability, readability, and reuse (Garzotto, Mainetti & Paolini, 1995). Nielsen (1993) proposed a system for designing and testing the user friendliness of interactive media systems. He called his approach "usability engineering," the same name given his 1993 book. One of his "usability heuristics," i.e., consistency, has already been addressed earlier in this paper. Others include; simple and natural dialogue, speak the users' language, minimize the users' memory load, feedback, clearly marked exits, shortcuts, good error messages, prevent errors, and help and documentation (chapter 5). Usability Testing Procedures Nielsen's 1996 paper about the design of SunWeb, the internal Web site for Sun Computers, outlines his usability testing procedure. The four stages of his process; 1) card sorting, 2) icon intuitiveness testing, 3) card distribution to icons, and 4) thinking aloud walk through of page mock-up, involved testing the interface at various stages in the design process. The first step employed card sorting techniques to discover categories that made sense to the participants. A stack of cards with commands were given to the participants who were asked to sort them into categories. Next the participants were asked to group the stacks of cards into fewer groups and to give the groups names. Cluster analysis was then performed on the results of all participants. The second test involved showing icons to the participants and asking them to provide explanations for each. When the meaning of the icon was not obvious, the design was modified until the desired results were achieved. The third step in the process involved asking the participants to distribute the cards from the + Page 30 + first test, matching them to the most appropriate icon from the results of the second test. The fourth and final step was to present each participant with a mock-up of the final screen design, asking them to identify the icons and the related actions associated with each. Participants were also invited to comment on the aesthetics of the icons and design of the screen. This iterative design process allows for design and redesign in response to the feedback provided by representative end users. Yet another proposal for ascertaining user reaction to the cognitive structure of information space is to apply the "sketch- maps" commonly used in spatial cognition research (Shum, 1990, p. 142). Shum proposed having users place cards or draw squares on a board to represent nodes, and then draw the links that connect them. The theory assumes that information and links not important to the users will not be evident in their diagrams. Conclusion The meteoric growth of the Internet and World-Wide Web marks a significant development for the future of interactive hypermedia. While interactive television, video-on-demand, and other attempts to convert old media into new services have languished, the Internet has exploded on the scene. While the web is still largely a text-based medium, new developments in distributed software, e.g., Java and Shockwave, promise to bring new functionality and full multimedia potential to this already interactive medium. For effective implementation of these new hardware and software devices, authors of content will need to consider the cognitive processes that are experienced by the end users. References Balasubramanian, V. (1996). Chapter 8: A systematic approach to user interface design for a hypertext framework. [On-line]. Available: URL: http://www.isg.sfu.ca/~duchier/misc/hypertext_review/chapter8.html Bandura, A. (1994). Social cognitive theory of mass communication. In J. Bryant & D. Zillmann, (Eds.), Media effects: Advances in theory and research (pp. 61-90). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Bush, V. (1945, July). As we may think. Atlantic Monthly, 101-108. + Page 31 + Card, S. K., Moran, S. P., & Newell, A. (1983). The psychology of human computer interaction. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Carroll, J. M., Mack, R. L. & Kellogg, W. A. (1988). Interface metaphors and user interface design. In M. Helander, (Ed.), Handbook of human-computer interaction (pp. 67-85). New York, NY: Elsevier Science Publishers. Clark, R. E. & Craig, T. G. (1992). Research and theory on multi- media learning effects. In M. Giardina, (Ed.), Interactive multimedia learning environments (pp. 19-30). Berlin: Springer- Verlag. Conklin, J. (1986). Hypertext: An introduction and survey. IEEE Computing, 20, 17-41. Davis, B., Marks, L., Collins, D., Mack, R., Malkin, P., & Nguyen, T. (1994). The human interface to large multimedia databases. SPIE Conference: High-Speed Networking and Multimedia Computing, 1994. Dillon, A, McKnight, C. & Richardson, J. (1993). Space-the final chapter or why physical representations are not semantic intentions. In C. McKnight, A. Dillon, & J. Richardson, (Eds.), Hypertext: A psychological perspective (pp. 169-191). New York: Ellis Horwood. Eco, U. (1976). A theory of semiotics. Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press. Eklund, J. (1995). Cognitive models for structuring hypermedia and implications for learning from the world-wide web. [On-line]. Available: URL: http://www.scu.edu.au/ausweb95/papers/hypertext/eklund/index.html Engelbart, D. C. (1995). Toward augmenting the human intellect and boosting our collective IQ. Communications of the ACM, 38, 30, 32- 33. Erickson, T. D. (1990). Working with interface metaphors. In B. Laurel, (Ed.), The Art of Human-Computer Interface Design (pp. 65- 73). Reading, MA: Addison Wesley. Garcia, M., Stark, P. (1991). Eyes on the news. St. Petersburg, FL: The Poynter Institute for Media Studies. + Page 32 + Garzotto, F., Mainetti, L., & Paolini, P. (1995). Hypermedia design, analysis, and evaluation issues. Communications of the ACM, 38, 74-87. Giardina, M. (1992). Interactivity and intelligent advisory strategies in a multimedia learning environment: Human factors, design issues and technical considerations. In M. Giardina, (Ed.), Interactive multimedia learning environments (pp. 48-66). Berlin: Springer-Verlag. Gibson, W. (1984). Neuromancer. New York: Ace Books. Grimes, T. (1990). Encoding TV news messages into memory. Journalism Quarterly, 67, 757-766. Graber, D. (1990). Seeing is remembering: How visuals contribute to learning from television news. Journal of Communication, 40, 134-155. Jonassen, D. (1993). Effects of semantically structured hypertext knowledge bases on users' knowledge structures. In C. McKnight, A. Dillon, & J. Richardson, (Eds.), Hypertext: A psychological perspective (pp. 153-168). New York: Ellis Horwood. Kahn, P. (1995). Visual cues for local and global coherence in the WWW. Communications of the ACM, 38, 67-69. Laurel, B. (Ed.). (1990). The art of Human-computer interface design. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley Publishing. Lynch, P. J. (1994). Visual design for the user interface: Part 1, design fundamentals. Journal of Biocommunications, 21, 22-30. [On- line]. Available: URL: http://info.med.yale.edu/caim/publications/papers/gui.p1.html McKnight, C., Dillon, A., & Richardson, J. (Eds.). (1993). Hypertext: A psychological perspective. New York: Ellis Horwood. Miles, D. (1996). The CD-ROM novel Myst and McLuhan's fourth law of media: Myst and its "retrievals." Journal of Communication, 46, 4-18. Molich, R. & Nielsen, J. (1990). Improving a human-computer dialogue. Communications of the ACM, 33, 338-348. + Page 33 + Nelson, T. H. (1995). The heart of connection: Hypermedia unified by transclusion. Communications of the ACM, 38, 31-33. Nielsen, J., & Sano, D. (1996). SunWeb: User interface design for Sun Microsystem's internal web. [On-line]. Available: URL: http://www.sun.com/sun on-net/uidesign/sunweb/ Nielsen, J. (1995). Mutlimedia and hypertext: The Internet and beyond. Boston: AP Professional. Nielsen, J. (1993). Usability engineering. Boston: AP Professional. Nielsen, J. (1990). Hypertext and hypermedia. Boston: Academic Press. Preece, J. (1993). Hypermedia, multimedia and human factors. In C. Latchem, et. al. (Eds.), Interactive multimedia: Practice and Promise (pp. 135-150). London: Kogan Page. Recker, M. M. (1995). Cognitive media types for multimedia information access. [On-line]. Available: URL: http://www.comp.vuw.ac.nz/~mimi/succeed/ Reeves, B, & Anderson, D.R. (1991). Media studies and psychology. Communication Research, 18, 597-600. Rivlin, E., Botafogo, R., & Shneiderman, B. (1994). Navigating in hyperspace: Designing a structure-based toolbox. Communications of the ACM, 37, 87-96. Salomon, G. (1979). Interaction of media, cognition, and learning. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Shum, S. (1990). Real and virtual spaces: Mapping from spatial cognition to hypertext. Hypermedia, 2, 133-158. Steuer, J. (1992). Defining virtual reality: Dimensions determining telepresence. Journal of Communication, 42, 73-93. Turing, M., Hannemann, J., & Haake, J. (1995). Hypermedia and cognition: Designing for comprehension. Communications of the ACM, 38, 57-66. + Page 34 + Utt, S., & Pasternack, S. (1989). How they look: An updates study of American newspaper front pages. Journalism Quarterly, 66, 621- 628. Van de Bogart, W. (1990). Cognition, perception and the computer. Leonardo, 23, 307-313. Wright, P. (1993). To jump or not to jump: Strategy selection while reading electronic texts. In C. McKnight, A. Dillon, & J. Richardson, (Eds.), Hypertext: A psychological perspective (pp. 137-152). New York: Ellis Horwood. NOTES [1] For an overview of cognitive processing as it applies to computers prior to the mid '80s, (and prior to many of the developments discussed in this paper), see Card, S. K., Moran, S. P., and Newell, A. (1983). The psychology of human computer interaction. Chapters 1, (presenting an historical review of information-processing psychology), and 2, (covering the physiological aspects of human cognition), may be particularly useful. [2] An example of communication theory applicable to the design of interactive multimedia can be found in the study of semiotics. See, Eco, U. (1976) A Theory of Semiotics. The study of icons, picture icons or "picons" (Davis, 1994, p. 4), moving icons or "micons" (Nielsen, 1991, p. 7), and audio icons or "earcons" and their meaning in the context of interactive media is teeming with possibilities. [3] According to Nielsen (1996), during 1994, "the number of Web servers on the Internet grew at a rate of about 10,000% per year." See also, Nielsen, J. (1995). Multimedia and hypertext: The Internet and beyond. Chapter 7, Hypertext on the Internet, provides information about the recent and projected growth of the Internet. [4] See, Nelson, T. H. (1995). The heart of connection: Hypermedia unified by transclusion. Communications of the ACM 38, 8 p. 31. [5] For a review of studies that consider the ways that readers of linear and hypertext documents respond to available associated links see, Wright, P. (1993). To jump or not to jump. In, McKnight, C., Dillon, A., and Richardson, J. (Eds.) Hypertext: A psychological perspective. Wright analyzed studies that sought to + Page 35 + determine how often and under what conditions users availed themselves of linked supplemental materials, e.g., glossaries, illustrations, and auditory elements. Wright concluded that "design features of hypertext can have an important influence on readers' willingness to jump" (p. 142). [6] For a collection of stories about the design of the Macintosh OS see, Laurel, B. (Ed.) (1990). The art of Human-computer interface design. [7] Media Determinism in Cyberspace is available online at URL: http://www.regent.edu/acad/schcom/rojc/mdic/md.html [8] An overview of interface metaphors can be found in Carroll, Mack and Kellog, (1988). Interface metaphor and user interface design. In M. Helander (Ed.). Handbook of human-computer interaction (pp. 67-85). See also, Erickson, T. D. (1990). Working with interface metaphors. In B. Laurel (Ed.) The Art of Human- Computer Interface Design, pp. 65-73. [9] Dillon et. al. (1993) cite Toulman's (1948) paper on cognitive maps as the seminal work in this area.
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BIOGRAPHICAL NOTE
Samuel Ebersole, MA Associate Professor, Mass Communication University of Southern Colorado 2200 Bonforte Blvd. Pueblo, CO 81001-4901 ebersole@uscolo.edu . Samuel Ebersole is an associate professor of Mass Communications at the University of Southern Colorado. He received his B.A. from Southern California College in 1982 and his M.A. from Regent University in 1984. Ebersole has been teaching television production since 1984 and has worked professionally for numerous broadcast and cable companies. For his work with NBC Sports in their coverage of the 1988 Summer Olympic Games, Ebersole was awarded two Emmy awards. He is the author of Broadcast Technology Worktext, published by Focal Press in 1992. His areas of interest and expertise are video and audio production, television documentary, new media technologies, and computer-mediated communication.
Copyright Statement Interpersonal Computing and Technology: An Electronic Journal for the 21st Century © 1997 The Association for Educational Communications and Technology. Copyright of individual articles in this publication is retained by the individual authors. Copyright of the compilation as a whole is held by AECT. It is asked that any republication of this article state that the article was first published in IPCT-J. Contributions to IPCT-J can be submitted by electronic mail in APA style to: Susan Barnes, Editor |